
Armenian Feminist Voices: The Contributions of Srpouhi Dussap, Hayganush Mark, Marie Beyleryan, and Zaruhi Kalemkaryan
Srpouhi Dussap (1840–1901) stands as a pioneering figure in Armenian literature, not only for her literary contributions but also for her role in championing the cause of women’s rights and education. Born in Constantinople in the Ortakoy district, she was the daughter of a prosperous upper-class Armenian Catholic family. Her upbringing in a family that imitated the Western European lifestyle, especially French culture, initially distanced her from her own Armenian heritage. However, after receiving tutelage from the Armenian poet Mkrtich Beshiktashlian, she developed a profound love for the Armenian language and literature. This shift in her perspective marked the beginning of her literary journey, which would go on to reshape the role of women in Armenian culture and literature. Dussap’s personal life was marked by her marriage to Paul Dussap, a French musician, with whom she established a European-style salon in Constantinople. This intellectual gathering place became a hub for prominent writers, thinkers, and political activists, offering a platform for discussions on social reform, literature, and the pressing political issues of the time. Dussap’s salon was a reflection of her progressive views, particularly in terms of women’s education and their role in society, which she sought to address both publicly and in her literary works. Dussap’s contributions to Armenian literature were groundbreaking. She was the first Armenian writer to explore feminist themes in her writing, addressing issues of gender inequality, women’s education, and the lack of financial independence for women. Her first novel, Mayda (1883), is recognized as the first novel written by an Armenian woman, and it highlights the theme of women’s unequal status within society. This novel was followed by Siranush (1884) and Araksia, or The Governess (1887), both of which delved deeper into the oppression of women, particularly focusing on the female peasantry of the Ottoman Empire. In these works, Dussap critiqued the patriarchal systems that perpetuated ignorance among women and subjected them to forced marriages, especially in rural areas. She argued that even in cosmopolitan centers like Constantinople, women were deprived of their freedom and dominated by men. Her novels reflected her belief that societal progress was inextricably tied to the emancipation of women, an idea that brought her both admiration from progressives and opposition from more conservative intellectuals, such as Krikor Zohrab. Dussap’s dedication to female emancipation went beyond her literary works. She was an active participant in philanthropic and charitable organizations that supported women’s education and rights, contributing to the broader movement for women’s empowerment in the late 19th century. Despite the challenges she faced, including the personal tragedy of losing her daughter Dorine in 1891, which led her to cease writing for publication, Dussap’s legacy as a writer and feminist remains intact. Her work had a profound impact on subsequent generations of Armenian women writers. Zabel Yesayan, a prominent Armenian author, recalled how Dussap’s writings had inspired her and her peers during their youth. Yesayan fondly remembered their meetings with Dussap, describing how she encouraged them to pursue their ambitions despite the formidable challenges women faced in the literary world. Dussap’s words to Yesayan, warning her about the difficulties women would encounter in literature and urging her to exceed mediocrity, left an indelible mark on the young writer. This advice reinforced the notion that women had to not only be talented but also resilient and exceptional in order to carve out a place for themselves in a society that often rejected their intellectual contributions. In recognition of her groundbreaking role in Armenian literature and her advocacy for women’s rights, Dussap remains a symbol of feminist thought and action. Her first novel, Mayda, was translated into English for the first time in 2020 by Nareg Seferian, allowing her work to reach a broader audience and continue to inspire future generations of writers and feminists.
Hayganush Mark, born in 1884 in Constantinople, was a pioneering figure in the Armenian feminist movement and a staunch advocate for the empowerment of women within her community. Her father, Markar Topuzyan, a servant-broker from Van, and her mother, Yebrakse, from Constantinople, played a central role in shaping her Armenian identity. With the introduction of the Surname Law in Turkey in 1934, she adopted the family name “Mark,” a shortened version of “Markar,” reflecting the broader societal shift towards the use of surnames. Mark’s education began at the Esayan Elementary and High School, where she excelled in her studies, particularly in Armenian language, under the guidance of the prominent linguist Hagop Kurken. After five years of lessons with Kurken, she transitioned into a teaching role at the Yedikule Armenian Hospital orphanage, where she worked for four years. During this period, Mark’s literary talent began to emerge, leading to her first article being published in the Manzûme-i Efkâr, an Armeno-Turkish periodical. This early exposure to writing opened doors for her in other periodicals such as Pürag, Hanrakidag, Püzantion, and Panaser, and by the time she was under twenty, she had already earned second place in a poetry competition held by Masis. In 1905, Mark assumed the role of editor for Dzaghig (“Flower”), an Armenian women’s magazine based in Constantinople. At this time, Dzaghig primarily featured contributions from male writers, many of whom adopted feminine pen names. However, Mark, inspired by the feminist movements in France, sought to create a space for women’s voices by making the magazine exclusively written and published by women. After marrying Vahan Toshigyan, the editorial director of Manzûme-i Efkâr, Mark left her position at the orphanage and moved with her husband to Smyrna. There, she continued her advocacy for women through her writing in local publications such as Arşaluys (“Dawn”) and Arevelk (“Orient”). Mark’s return to Constantinople in 1909 marked a significant shift in her career. She became the head of the Literary Commission of the “Nationalist Armenian Women’s Union,” which played an instrumental role in the establishment of 32 Armenian schools across Anatolia, focusing particularly on the education of girls. This effort was part of her broader vision for national development, which she believed was inextricably linked to the education and empowerment of women. In 1919, Mark founded the bi-weekly feminist magazine Hay Gin (“Armenian Woman”), which she edited until its closure in 1932. Initially, Mark had aimed to create a publication solely for women, but over time, she revised this stance, believing that both men and women should be involved in the dialogue around gender equality and women’s rights. Under her leadership, Hay Gin became an essential platform for discussing social issues and advocating for the active participation of women in public life. Mark’s contributions to feminist discourse were both bold and nuanced. For example, in 1923, she criticized a statement by Muhittin Üstündağ, a deputy in Istanbul, who argued that gender equality could not exist because women were not enlisted in the military. Mark responded vehemently in the Hilal-ı Ahmer (“Red Crescent”) newspaper, highlighting the vital roles women had played as mothers and nurses during times of war, thus challenging prevailing assumptions about gender roles in society. Despite the challenges she faced, Hay Gin continued to publish for thirteen years before being shut down by the Turkish government in 1932, allegedly due to its support for the Allies during the post-World War I period. Mark’s feminist ideology was rooted in the belief that women did not need to mimic men to achieve emancipation. She argued that women’s economic independence was essential, but that it was not necessary to adopt masculine traits in order to do so. She also critiqued the education system, which she felt was created from a male perspective, and called for women’s involvement in curriculum development. Mark believed that while men and women were inherently different, they were equal, and that women should embrace their distinctiveness as a source of strength for both themselves and society at large. Hayganuş Mark passed away in 1966 at the age of 81 at the Yedikule Armenian Hospital. In her final moments, she urged a friend to “write for the homeland, nation, and humanity and be happy with them,” a testament to her lifelong dedication to these causes. She was buried at the Şişli Armenian Cemetery in Istanbul, where her headstone bears the title of her groundbreaking feminist publication, Hay Gin. Through her unwavering commitment to women’s rights, education, and national development, Mark remains an enduring figure in the history of Armenian feminism and a key architect of the movement for gender equality within the Armenian community.
Marie Beyleryan, a pioneering Armenian editor and writer, is most renowned for founding and editing Artemis, the first Armenian women’s magazine, which she launched in 1902 in Alexandria, Egypt. During her time in Alexandria, Beyleryan also taught at a local Armenian school, contributing to the educational development of the community. Through Artemis, she provided an unprecedented platform for Armenian women to engage with contemporary social, cultural, and political issues, running the journal from January 1902 to December 1903. Beyleryan accepted submissions not only from prominent writers but also from Armenian women throughout the diaspora, giving voice to a broader spectrum of experiences and perspectives. She was particularly invested in exploring the critical role that Armenian women would play in the development of national identity, emphasizing that women’s education and employment were integral to the advancement of the Armenian nation. Editorials authored by Beyleryan delved into themes such as motherhood and the transformative power of women’s education, advocating for women’s active participation in shaping their community’s future. Her work was a transformative force, encouraging Armenian women to redefine their roles, pursue higher education, and engage in public life. Beyleryan’s editorial vision was both bold and revolutionary, challenging the patriarchal norms that limited women’s roles in society. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908 and the implementation of the Ottoman Constitution, Beyleryan returned to Constantinople, where she continued her work as a teacher in Smyrna and later at the Tokat Armenian school. Tragically, she passed away in 1915, during the horrific events of the Armenian Genocide.
Zaruhi Kalemkaryan was a distinguished Armenian writer, journalist, and public figure who became a driving force in the intellectual and feminist movements of the early 20th century. Through her active participation in Armenian periodicals such as Artemis and Hay Gin, she advocated for the empowerment and education of women, challenging traditional societal norms and gender roles. Her writings addressed a range of critical social issues, including national identity and women’s rights. After the Armenian Genocide, Kalemkaryan’s focus shifted to humanitarian efforts, particularly helping orphaned children and those devastated by the atrocities. Relocating to New York City, she continued her cultural and charitable work, contributing significantly to the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) and other philanthropic organizations. Her legacy as a pioneer for women’s rights and a steadfast advocate for the Armenian community endures through her works and activism.

